Mechanisms of Social Control - 9
There are some who would argue that if we wish to follow universal ethical principles, then we should best do so by providing universal education or indoctrination into these principles and dispense with religion entirely. This, of course, raises questions as to who should be responsible for such ethical education (the family and the school have not currently been too effective in this regard) and, indeed, who should determine exactly what these moral principles should be. In addition, there are a number of contributions of religions, other than social control, that are difficult to give up: the sense of belongingness, social support, the beauty and inspiration of traditional prayer and services, a counterweight to some governmental restrictions, a sense of power to many who consider themselves powerless, and, recently, evidence of actual health advantages that can he enhanced through prayer (Paloutzian & Kirkpatrick, 1995). Thus, followers of some modern religious movements, while encouraging independence of thought and action, have rejected the conception of a God who relies on coercive power, reward power, unquestioned expert power, and guilt-induced legitimate power, yet continue to feel a need for a Deity in their religion.(9)
The Reconstructionist movement in Judaism, founded by Mordechai Kaplan (1994), considers God as a force, rather than as an all-powerful Being with superhuman-like qualities, fashioned after a benevolent, but sometimes vengeful, king of yore. Such a God is seen as a force for a well-ordered and systematic universe, which is manifest in a basic tendency for goodness, which comes from within ourselves. God then is "the power within which inspires us to strive for human fulfillment as loving and caring people, and acknowledges both the rational foundation of the universe and the spirituality inherent in all human life" (Reuben, 1998). Prayer in such religious services is directed to the best tendencies within ourselves. Similar modern-day orientations are represented in Christian religions, and, indeed, have some similarity to Buddhism, which does not include a deity, as Western peoples think of it, but includes prayer to tanha, a drive for personal fulfillment (Smith, 1994, p. 72).
Discussion
In this presentation, I have reviewed the bases of power and the Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence, and attempted to demonstrate how that model might help us understand the mechanisms of social control, as these are utilized by religions. Religion, of course, comes in innumerable forms. I have focused particularly on the Judeo-Christian religions, with some reference to Islam, and even in these religions, I do not begin to examine the many ways in which they are understood and practiced. Although religion serves many functions and purposes, the social control function has been especially important. In examining these religions, I look at the various bases of power that are utilized, particularly those bases of power that are attributed to God. The Bible, the Koran, other Holy Works, including commentaries and prayer books, serve first to prescribe and proscribe behaviors and beliefs that are considered by religious authorities to be necessary and appropriate for the maintenance and survival of humankind. These also serve as effective stage-setting and preparatory devices for the establishing of the power of God and the religious system. These bases of power, it seems, were developed according to what the writers and editors of religious works felt were appropriate to the people who were to be the targets. Certain bases of power emphasize the coercive and reward power of God, which are possible with a God who is omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent. Often these bases of power are supported by strong forms of legitimate power that demand unquestioned obedience and invoke guilt for failure to conform. In contrast, some forms of religion emphasize informational power, depending on reasoning for adherence to universal values and principles. Tensions within religious groups develop when a traditional religion continues to be based on coercion/reward and unquestioned legitimate and expert power, though many followers expect informational power.
This discussion only begins to examine the bases of power in religions. Certainly, it would be fruitful to examine social power in greater depth, in other religions and how these operate in the interests of social control. In addition, there are several other topics which should be considered:
1. The bases of power used by religious authority figures. In their day-to-day contacts with their members and in their sermons, ministers, rabbis, and priests draw on a number of power resources (Heinrichs, 1993). The ways they utilize these resources will depend on their perceptions of their members, and the effectiveness of their influence will similarly depend on their ability to select an appropriate fit.
2. Analyses of power strategies in religious cults and new religious movements. The distinction between a "religion" and a "cult" is not always clear. It would appear that many current established religions in their early stages of development were close to what we would call "cults." Accordingly, cults can sometimes be studied in the same way that astronomers study astronomical nebulae in attempting to understand the origins and development of our solar system. The examination of cults, such as the Reverend Jim Jones and the People's Temple,(10) Heaven's Gate, the Unification Church, Hare Krishnas, and the Kingdom of Father Divine, often indicates attempts at social influence and social control (Batson & Ventis, 1982, pp. 202-210; Galanter, 1989; Paloutzian, 1996, pp. 166-173; Young & Griffith, 1992) The social influence processes utilized in cults are often quite consistent with the Power/Interaction Model.
3. Analysis of other approaches to social control. Religion has been one of the major devices dedicated to social control, but there are, of course, many others. Most prominent is the governmental and legal system. Arguments about law and order, the use of incarceration or threat of death versus education, and the discussion of instruction in morality and ethics in the schools essentially reflect conceptions of moral development and the efficacy of various social power strategies.
A full discussion of such issues must await further study and exploration.
This article is based on a presentation for the Kurt Lewin Award from The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues at the SPSSI Annual Convention in Ann Arbor, Michigan, June 19, 1998. It has been revised somewhat, with some additional material added that could not be presented due to time limitations.
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